ques=new Array();n=0;suggestion=new Array();sug=0;ques[n++]=new Array("penis poo tit bitch fanny fart prick dickhead screw dick fucker fucked fucking shag spunk cock masturbate bender asshole porn horny std twat pimp fuck cunt bastard piss shit tits crap screw wank screw porno paedophile tosser wanker arse arsehole pussy","Grow up and stop using such foul language, you idiot","I hope you are more polite to women when you meet them face to face","I am a medical doctor; by the sound of you, you require a pyschologist","Charming","Do you realise that it is possible for your teacher to click 'view this conversation' and read what you have just asked me?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("a.prehistoric","Did prehistoric people believe that powerful spirits caused and cured illnesses?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("a.prehistoric","How was medicine practised in prehistoric times?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("a.prehistoric","How was surgery practiced in prehistoric times?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("a.prehistoric","Why was prehistoric medicine and surgery based more on religion than research?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","How can we explain the medical advances made in Ancient Egypt?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","How did religion affect the practice of medicine in Ancient Egypt? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","How was surgery practiced in Ancient Egypt?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","Tell me about childbirth and fertility treatment in Ancient Egypt") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","What are the most famous papyri?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","What sorts of medicines were used by the Ancient Egyptians?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","What was mummification, and how did it improve knowledge of anatomy?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","What was the attitude of Ancient Egyptians towards sanitation and public health?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("b.egyptians","Who is the most famous figure in Ancient Egyptian Medicine?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("c.greeks","How can we explain the medical advances made in Ancient Greece?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("c.greeks","How did religion affect the practice of medicine in Ancient Greece? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("c.greeks","How did the Ancient Greek Hippocrates say we should diagnose diseases? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("c.greeks","How did the Hippocratic Oath professionalise medicine in Ancient Greece?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("c.greeks","What was the attitude of Ancient Greeks towards sanitation and public health?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("c.greeks","What were the Four Humours and how did were they supposed to affect a person's heath?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("c.greeks","Who was Aretaeus of Cappadocia?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("c.greeks","Who was Homer?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","How and why did Galen’s ideas spread so rapidly?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","How did religion affect the practice of medicine in the Roman Empire?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","How did superstition affect the practice of medicine in the Roman Empire?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","How did the Romans say we should diagnose diseases?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","How did war and the army contribute to the development of Roman Medicine?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","How have the remains at Pompeii deepened our understanding of Roman surgery?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","How was surgery practiced in the Roman Empire?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","In what ways was Roman medicine based on superstition rather than real research?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","In what ways were Galen’s ideas misleading and unhelpful?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","What did Plutarch have to say about Roman doctors?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","What was the attitude of Romans towards doctors?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","What was the attitude of the Romans towards sanitation and public health?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","What were Galen’s main contributions to medicine?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","Who was Galen?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","Who was Onbasius?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("d.romans","Who was Pedanios Dioscorides?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","Did hospitals improve in the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","How did religion affect the practice of medicine in the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","How did religion affect the practice of medicine in the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","How did superstition affect the practice of medicine in the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","In what ways did medical treatment remain poor in the Middle ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","In what ways did surgery and anatomical knowledge remain primitive during the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","In what ways did the Black Death highlight improvements in medical knowledge? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","In what ways did the Black Death highlight the ignorance of medieval medicine?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","What developments took place in surgery and anaesthetics during the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","What improvements were made in sanitation and public health during the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","What sorts of medicines were used in the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","When were the first medical schools established?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("e.medieval","Why was relatively little progress made in medicine during the Middle Ages?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","Did women work as doctors during the Renaissance?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","How did Voyages of Exploration lead to developments in medicine during the Renaissance?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","How did the Printing Press lead to Renaissance medical advances?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","How did the Reformation lead to developments in Renaissance medicine?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","How did warfare lead to medical advances during the Renaissance?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","How was Harvey able to make his discoveries?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","How was surgery practiced in the Renaissance?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","In what general ways did medicine fail to progress during the Renaissance?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","In what ways did religion hinder the progress of medicine in the Renaissance?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","In what ways did surgery fail to progress in the Renaissance?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","In what ways was Renaissance Public Health a source of concern?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","In what ways were Paré’s ideas misleading and unhelpful?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","What contributions did Vesalius make to surgery?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","What was the Renaissance?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","What were Renaissance hospitals like?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","What were the limitations of Harvey's discoveries?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","Who was Paré, what did he discover and why was he important?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","Who was Vesalius?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","Who was William Harvey? What did he discover?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("f.renaissance","Why did Pare’s ideas not gain general support during his lifetime?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","How did women contribute to the development of 19th Century medicine?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","How was hygiene and public health improved in the 19th Century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","How were hospitals improved in the 19th Century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","How were housing conditions improved in the 19th Century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","What prevented greater advances being made in 19th Century hospital care?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","What prevented greater public health advances being made in the 19th Century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Who was Edward Jenner?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Who was Edwin Chadwick?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Who was Florence Nightingale?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Who was Joseph Lister and what did he discover?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Who was Louis Pasteur and what did he discover?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Who was Robert Koch?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Who was Rontgen, and what did he discover? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Why was hygiene and public health improved in the 19th Century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Why was vaccination unpopular in the 19th century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("g.nineteenth","Why were so many advances in medicine made during the 19th Century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","How did World War One help to spread disease? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","How did World War One lead to developments in medicine?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","How did World War Two lead to developments in medicine and surgery?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","How did governments contribute to developments in medicine and health?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","How has 20th century technology led to developments in medicine?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","How was the treatment of diabetes improved in the 20th century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","How were antibiotics developed in the 20th century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","What developments took place in vaccination in the 20th Century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","What has been the impact of AIDS?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","What new health problems emerged towards the end of the 20th century?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","What problems still remain as we enter the 21st century? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","Who was Alexander Fleming, and what did he discover?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","Who was Christian Barnard, and what contribution did he make to surgery?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","Who was Gerhard Domagk, and what did he discover?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","Who was Paul Ehrlich, and what did he discover?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("h.twentieth","Who was the first 'test tube baby'?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What are Antibiotics? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What are Antiseptics useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Acetum useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Cannabis useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Carbolic Acid useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Insulin useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Lactic acid useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Linseed Oil useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Opium useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Saffron useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Tobacco useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Turpentine useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is Wine useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is briony useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is gum acacia useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is hemlock useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is henbane useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is morphine useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is opium useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("i.drugs","What is quinine useful for?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1543?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1575?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1628?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1832?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1834?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1840?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1853?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1854?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1857?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1866?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1868?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1871?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1875?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1895?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1909?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1911?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1918? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1921?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1928?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1932?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1942?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1948?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1950?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1967?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1974?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1978?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1980?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("j.dates","What happened in 1985?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Alexander Fleming?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Anthony Leeuwenhoek?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Anubis?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Aretaeus of Cappadocia?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Asklepios?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Caxton? ") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Christian Barnard?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Domagk?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Edward Jenner?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Edwin Chadwick?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Edwin Smith?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Elizabeth Blackwell?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Emperor Augustus?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Erasmus?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Ernst Chain?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Florence Nightingale?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Frederick Banting?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Galen?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Gutenberg?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Harold Delf Gillies?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Herodotus?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Hippocrates?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Homer?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Homer?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Howard Florey?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Imhotep?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was John Macleod?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Landsteiner?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Louis Pasteur?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Louis Washkansky?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Louise Brown?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Marcus Aurelius?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Mary Seacole?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Onbasius?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Osler?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Pare?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Paul Ehrlich?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Pedanios Dioscorides?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Plutarch?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Robert Edwards?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Robert Hooke?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Robert Koch?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Rontgen?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Ryan White?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Selman Waksman?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Sir Archibald McIndoe?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Taweret?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Thoth?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Titian?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was Vesalius?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was William Harvey?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was guy de chauliac?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was hygieia?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was panacea ?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who was the iceman?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who were the Barber-Surgeons?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who were the Flagellants?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("k.who","Who were the shamen?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about Microbes?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about bulemia and anorexia?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about cholera?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about gangrene?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about influenza?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about leprosy?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about pneumonia?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about smallpox?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about syphilis?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("l.diseases","Can you provide some information about tuberculosis?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Can you provide some information about AIDS?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Can you provide some information about Biotechnology?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Can you provide some information about The ‘Magic Bullet’?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Can you provide some information about blood-letting?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Can you provide some information about plastic surgery?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Can you provide some information about the NHS?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Can you provide some information about the telegraph?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Can you provide some information about vademecum?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Tell me about witchcraft and medicine") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","What does cauterise mean?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","What happened in Pompeii?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","What is a pilgrimage?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","What is bile?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","What is empiricism?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","What is phlegm?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","What is the Hippocratic Oath?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","What was the Reformation?") suggestion[sug++]=new Array("m.misc","Who invented the microscope?") //THE BRAIN! ques[n++]=new Array("a.prehistoric practised prehistoric times digitalis morphine quinine iceman ice alps 1991","Prehistoric people had little idea of how the body worked, but they had simple cures using medicinal herbs. These drugs (such as digitalis, morphine and quinine) were discovered by trial and error. The prehistoric iceman discovered in the Alps in 1991 was carrying birch fungus, which stops bleeding and acts as a disinfectant") ques[n++]=new Array("a.prehistoric prehistoric powerful spirits caused cured illnesses shamen","Cave paintings and lucky charms found by archaeologists suggest the earliest humans believed in spirits and supernatural forces. Witch doctors called Shamen contacted the spirit world through mysterious trances, and it was they who administered herbal medicines") ques[n++]=new Array("a.prehistoric prehistoric surgery based religion research magic","Prehistoric people were hunter-gatherers. They lived in small groups and constantly moved around the country seeking out the best conditions for shelter and food supplies. They had little time for research, and instead used religion and magic to make sense of the world around them") ques[n++]=new Array("a.prehistoric surgery practiced prehistoric times broken limbs skulls drilling trepanning","Prehistoric people had little idea of how the body worked, but they did know how to set broken limbs by using clay to act as a plaster-cast. They also practised trepanning (drilling holes in the skull) to release evil spirits. Excavated skulls show that the wounds healed and the bone grew back, so it appears that patients often survived this drastic brain surgery!") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians famous figure ancient egyptian imhotep zozer osler","The most famous of the Egyptian physicians was Imhotep, who lived about 2800 BC. Imhotep is also famous as the architect of the great Step Pyramid of Saqqarah. Imphotep was the physician to King Zozer and was considered so important that he was, after his death, was worshipped as a god of healing. Sir William Osler tells us that Imhotep was the '..first figure of a physician to stand out clearly from the mists of antiquity.' ") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians attitude ancient egyptians towards sanitation public health herodotus homer egypt","Herodotus - an Ancient Greek writer - describes how the Egyptians, and especially the priests, washed frequently, and Homer (the great writer) stated that 'In Egypt, the men are more skilled in Medicine than any of human kind'. The prescription for a healthy life meant that an individual undertook regular purification rituals (including bathing, and frequently shaving the head and body hair)") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians childbirth fertility treatment ancient egypt egyptians abortions saffron gynaecology gum acacia","The Egyptians had specialists in gynaecology who were the forerunners of modern midwives. Fertility was diagnosed by placing garlic in the vagina for one night. If the next day the woman could taste it in her mouth, this meant her fallopian tubes were open and she was fertile. Difficult labours were aided by burning resin, or massaging the abdomen by saffron powder and beer. Women gave birth in a squatting position and would breast feed their children for 3 years. Abortions were done by introduction of warm oil and fat in the vagina. Contraception was also performed by the insertion of gum acacia into the vagina (when dissolved, this produces lactic acid, an effective spermicide)") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians dissection disection dissections disection religion affect practice ancient egypt thoth anubis taweret","Religion had a great role to play in Ancient Egyptian medicine. All cures, even natural ones, were used alongside prayers (e.g. to Thoth and Anubis, gods of healing, and Taweret, goddess of childbirth) and the people often wore charms such as scarab beetle brooches to ward off illness. The power of religion prevented progress – for example, mummification was a religious process, and the priests forbade dissection or examination of the internal organs that were removed, because the human body was God's creation") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians explain advances ancient egypt egyptians nile papyrus","The Ancient Egyptians made great strides in medicine because they did not move around like the prehistoric people. Some areas, such as the Nile valley, provided so much food that some people could become priests and doctors rather than farmers. At the same time, public health problems began to emerge when large numbers of people lived together. The development of written records on papyrus (a paper made from reeds) allowed knowledge to be built up and for doctors to be trained") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians famous papyri edwin smith ebers edwin ebers egypt","The most famous and elaborate papyri are the “Edwin Smith Papyrus” (which focuses on surgery) and the “Ebers papyrus” (which is more concerned with disease). For treatment of those diseases, 877 recipes and 400 drugs were described") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians mummification improve knowledge anatomy mummy mummify mummified herodotus myrrh cassia","The tradition of mummifying bodies included removing internal organs such as the heart, lungs and liver, and this led to a deeper understanding of anatomy. Herodotus described the process of mummification as follows: 'First they take a crooked piece of metal and with it draw out some of the brain through the nostrils and then rinse out the rest with drugs. Next they make a cut along the side of the body with a sharp stone and take out the whole contents of the abdomen. After this they fill the cavity with myrrh, cassia and other spices and the body is placed in natron [salt[ for 70 days.'") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians sorts ancient egyptians opium cannabis linseed oil egypt","Records show that the Ancient Egyptians used many preparations including opium, cannabis and linseed oil. Their pharmacists used almost 700 different drugs and an assortment of mortars, mills, sieves, and balances to prepare over 800 standardized pills, ointments, inhalants, and gargles") ques[n++]=new Array("b.egyptians surgery practiced ancient egypt egyptians penicillin opiates","The Egyptians used compression on a wound to stop bleeding and a needle and thread to sew wounds. They used bread moulds – which probably contained penicillin – to prevent infection. Pain alleviation to allow surgery was known to ancient Egyptian physicians. Patients were sedated by opiates. Local anesthesia was also known, where water was mixed with vinegar over Memphite stone, resulting in the formation of carbon dioxide with its known analgesic effect") ques[n++]=new Array("c.greeks aretaeus cappadocia","Aretaeus of Cappadocia was a Greek physician of the 1st century. He wrote a treatise on diseases, their causes, symptoms, and cures") ques[n++]=new Array("c.greeks attitude ancient greeks towards sanitation public health asklepion asclepion asklepions asklepios asclepions asclepios","The Greeks emphasised cleanliness, as we know from pictures on Greek vases and comments in written works. Hygiene was associated with health, so bathing was an important part of treatment in the Asklepions (Greek Hospitals run on religious terms, named after Asklepios, the God of Healing)") ques[n++]=new Array("c.greeks homer iliad odyssey","Homer was author of The Iliad and The Odyssey, epic poems which show how much Ancient Greeks knew about medicine. In The Iliad he mentions 150 wounds with a surprising degree of anatomical accuracy") ques[n++]=new Array("c.greeks ancient greek hippocrates hypocrates diagnose diseases empirical observation kos vademecum urine","The Greeks practised clinical observation, followed by diagnosis and treatment, inspired by the work of Hippocrates of Kos (460BC-370BC). Doctors used a handbook called a vademecum containing various charts, for example to compare the colour of a patient's urine, which helped them to diagnose illness") ques[n++]=new Array("c.greeks explain advances ancient greece greek","The Ancient Greeks made great strides in medicine because although they were great seafarers and travelled extensively around the Mediterranean which allowed them to learn from other cultures, especially the Egyptians. In addition, the Greeks were rich enough for some people to have the leisure to devote their lives to science or religion. Finally, they believed in many gods but were also interested in explaining the world around them in rational terms. As a result, they made discoveries not just in medicine, but in science, mathematics and astronomy") ques[n++]=new Array("c.greeks four humours supposed affect person health blood letting humor humors greek bile phlegm summer autumn seasons winter spring","The Greeks believed that each person’s health was due to the balance of four 'humours' in the body: yellow bile (from the liver), black bile (the spleen), blood (the heart) and phlegm (the brain). They believed that an imbalance in these caused illness: yellow bile made you short tempered; black bile made you depressed; phlegm made you dull and lazy; blood made you energetic. Doctors could restore the balance by, for example, blood-letting. The four humours were also tied up with the four seasons and the four elements. Blood was the humour of Spring / Air, phlegm of water / Autumn, yellow bile with fire / Summer, and black bile with earth / Winter") ques[n++]=new Array("c.greeks hippocratic oath professionalise ancient greece","Hippocrates stressed that doctors had to treat their patients with respect and not take advantage of them. To this day, doctors take the 'Hippocratic Oath' to behave properly. Its most famous part states that: 'In whatever houses I enter, I will enter to help the sick, and I will abstain from all intentional wrongdoing and harm, especially from abusing the bodies of man or woman, bond or free. And whatsoever I shall hear or see in the course of my profession in my intercourse with men, if it be what should not be published abroad, I will never divulge, holding such things to be holy secrets.”") ques[n++]=new Array("c.greeks religion affect practice ancient greece greek greeks panacea hygieia hygeia snake","Religion had a great role to play in Ancient Greek medicine. Greek Hospitals were called Asklepions after Asklepios, the God of Healing, and consisted merely of a temple for prayer and places for patients to sleep. It was believed that patients would be cured through visitations by Asklepios and his daughters, Panacea and Hygieia. He would come bearing a snake entwined around his staff") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans galen main contributions","Galen was an Ancient Greek doctor whose ideas dominated medicine for 1000 years. Galen stressed the importance of understanding the skeleton and the functions of parts of the body. He gained some knowledge of anatomy and physiology from treating wounded gladiators. His lectures and books pulled together all Greek and Roman medical knowledge and were used for the next 1000 years by Muslim and Christian cultures") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans galen marcus aurelius","Galen was an educated and experienced doctor who had worked at the Asklepion at Alexandria. He became successful in Rome after he had treated the Emperor, Marcus Aurelius") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans onbasius","Onbasius was a Roman who wrote an encyclopedia of medicine which was in a collection of 70 books around 325 AD") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans pedanios dioscorides herbal","Pedanios Dioscorides was a Roman who wrote a text on Herbal Medicine that was referred to for the next 1500 years and is still in use today in Alternative Medicine") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans plutarch roman doctors","Plutarch (a prolific author in Ancient Rome) said of Roman doctors that 'Some Medical Quacks would do just about anything to acquire clients, from accompanying them to alcohol dens to telling them dirty jokes. Still others were not above murdering their patients in cold blood for financial gain, for example, they might be paid and told to just 'put the patient out of his misery'.'") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans attitude romans towards doctors plutarch","Many Roman doctors were freed Greek slaves, so the social status of doctors was quite low. There were no licensing boards and no formal requirements for entrance to the profession. Plutarch grumbled that doctors gained patients by buying them drinks at bars and sharing dirty jokes with him") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans attitude romans towards sanitation public health acetum","The Romans knew that there was a connection between dirt and disease, so they drained swamps, built sewers to remove waste and constructed aqueducts to supply clean drinking water. These achievements were not equalled until the 20th century. The Roman baths became a part of life and kept germs and bacteria under control. Roman surgeons boiled their tools before use and would not reuse the same tool on a patient before reboiling. Wounds were washed with acetum, which is actually a better antiseptic than Joseph Lister's carbolic acid") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans galen ideas misleading unhelpful mistake mistakes heart","One of Galen's most notable mistakes was to think that the heart was divided in two parts. He believed that the blood on the right side went out to the lungs and to the liver, while the blood on the left-hand side of the heart went to the rest of the body. He believed these two lots of blood were kept separate") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans galen ideas spread rapidly monotheist","Galen’s ideas were able to spread throughout the Christian and Muslim world because Galen, unlike other Ancient Greeks, was a monotheist (i.e. he believed in one God, who he called 'The Creator')") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans religion affect practice roman empire asklepios","Although Galen realised the need to carry out experiments, human dissection was not acceptable to the Romans, so he had to base his ideas on the anatomy of animals, especially the ape, which often led to mistakes in his descriptions. The Romans also prayed to the Greek God of healing, Asklepios, who they believed travelled disguised as a snake") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans remains pompeii deepened understanding roman surgery pompeii","Some of the best discoveries of surgical tools in the Roman Empire come from the remains of Pompeii, the city buried in AD 79 after an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Archaeologists uncovered the home of a surgeon containing scalpels, scissors, and bone forceps") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans roman based superstition rather real research hyena","Although great advances were made by the Romans, they also used superstition and religion. For example, they believed that dried hyena skin would be given to help the victim of a mad-dog bite") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans romans diagnose diseases empiricism","The Romans examined the environment to work out what caused ill health. This led them, for example, to realise that death rates were higher around marshes and swamps. We call this technique 'Empirical Observation'") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans superstition affect practice roman empire liver","The practice of reading livers was common in the Roman world. After an animal was sacrificed its liver was examined by a priest who would interpret the liver. Looking at the liver, the priest would reveal good or bad omens from it") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans surgery practiced roman empire hernia blood letting cataracts gangrene","Common operations in Roman times ranged from small tumor removal to hernia operations. Like the Greeks, the Romans believed in the four humors and the power of bloodletting. The Romans also knew how to operate on cataracts and pioneered plastic surgery: the brandings and scars of a freed slave could be removed for a price. They also used amputation to prevent deadly gangrene (where flesh rots away on living people). Central heating and good ventilation also helped patients") ques[n++]=new Array("d.romans war army roman emperor augustus","To build an empire, the Romans needed healthy soldiers. Surgeons on the battlefield learned a lot about anatomy and the best ways of healing bodies. They invented new instruments to remove arrows, for example. Hospitals were found throughout the empire to allow for efficient treatment of soldiers. The Emperor Augustus created a new army medical corps whose members gained dignified titles, land grants, and special retirement benefits!") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval developments place surgery anaesthetics during middle ages wine","During medieval times, surgery and knowledge of Anatomy was developed as dissection started to be allowed. Doctors would, as part of their training, be lectured on the theories of Galen and often a dissection would form part of this teaching. Doctors recognised that infection and pain were the primary causes of death during surgery. To combat this they started to use wine as an antiseptic and drugs to ease pain") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval black death highlight ignorance medieval rats middle ages planets flagellants","The Black Death – spread by rats, although this was not known at the time - killed off one-third of the population of Europe in the mid 1300s. Some commentators explained the disease in turns of superstition, blaming the disease on the alignment of the planets. Others used religion to explain the disease: the flagellants were a group of people who whipped each other as punishment for their sins (the hope being that God would then spare them the ordeal of the plague)") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval black death highlight improvements knowledge","The Black Death – spread by rats, although this was not known at the time - killed off one-third of the population of Europe in the mid 1300s. Some commentators correctly argued that it had been brought across by foreign travelers and made worse by poor sanitation. An English law of 1388, for example, imposed fines of £30 on anyone who cast “dung and filth … into ditches, rivers, and other waters...so that…intolerable diseases do daily happen” ") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval hospitals improve middle ages lazar leprosy leper lepers","Medieval Christian concern for the ill and injured, as well as contact with the Arab world during the crusades, lead to the creation of many large hospitals built and run by monastic orders. However, these hospitals they offered food, a bed and prayers rather than a cure. Isolation hospitals called “Lazar Houses” were built for sufferers of leprosy (a disease which destroys nerve cells and tissue) who otherwise had to warn people of their approach by the ringing of hand-bells") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval improvements sanitation public health during middle ages medieval briony opium henbane hemlock","Some of the potions used to relieve pain or induce sleep during the surgery were themselves potentially lethal. One of these consisted of lettuce, gall from a castrated boar, briony, opium, henbane, and hemlock juice - the hemlock juice could easily have caused death") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval relatively little progress during middle ages collapse roman empire","During the Middle Ages, the collapse of the Roman Empire led to a decline in communications and in the loss of a great deal of medical knowledge built up over the centuries. Libraries were destroyed, universities closed down, and apart from in the monasteries, people forgot about the importance of clean water") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval religion affect practice middle ages medieval arab","Medieval Christian concern for the ill and injured, as well as contact with the Arab world during the crusades, did lead to the creation of many large hospitals built and run by monastic orders. Although little was done to cure the patients, they were usually well fed and comforted by a religious nursing staff") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval religion affect practice middle ages pilgrimage pilgrims pilgrimages flagellants","Medieval people felt that going on a pilgrimage would cure an illness and that being touched by a king or queen could cure scrofula. It was also assumed that diseases of the body resulted from sins of the soul. Many people sought relief from their ills through meditation, prayer and pilgrimages. During the Black Death, the flagellants whipped each other as punishment for their sins (the hope being that God would then spare them the ordeal of the plague)") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval schools","The professional training of doctors was a new feature of the Middle Ages. In the 11th century a medical school was established at Salerno, in southern Italy, which was so successful The Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick, decreed in 1121 that only doctors trained at the school could work in the royal court. By 1300 there were a dozen or so medical schools in Europe") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval sorts middle ages","Medieval people used herbs and plants for medicinal purposes and conducted urine analysis to find out how the body was working. This is still used today to check for many conditions like diabetes. Other diagnostic aids included taking the pulse and collecting blood samples. However, some of the potions used to induce sleep during surgery (such as hemlock) were themselves potentially lethal") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval superstition affect practice middle ages guy de chauliac","Medieval people believed that charms and spells could cure illness and that the position of the planets affected people's lives and health. Guy de Chauliac, a French commentator, said that “The main cause of the Black Death was the position of the planets: Saturn, Jupiter and Mars were very close together at that time. This is always a sign of terrible or wonderful things to come'") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval surgery anatomical knowledge remain primitive during middle ages","Although dissection was allowed during the Middle Ages, it was a demonstrator rather than the doctor who performed this and often mistakes would be made or inaccuracies blamed upon poor workmanship rather than ill-informed theories: meaning that for a long time the anatomical works of Galen and the Islamic physicians went unchallenged in Western Europe") ques[n++]=new Array("e.medieval treatment remain poor middle ages medieval barber surgeons dentist dentistry","Most people in the Middle Ages couldn’t afford to pay Doctor’s as fees were high at the time. Barber-Surgeons, as their name suggests, were people who cut hair but who also performed small operations like the removal of teeth for poor people in particular. Ordinary people would have to rely upon traditional remedies passed on from generation to generation") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance paré discover pare 1575 turpentine","Ambroise Paré (1517-90) was a French army surgeon for over 20 years and personal physician to the King. One day, he ran out of hot oil for cauterizing wounds, so he treated wounds with a mixture of egg yolks, oil of roses and turpentine, which he found healed quicker and with less pain than usual. He also encouraged the use of stitches for wounds rather than cauterisation. He published his ideas in a book, The Collected Works of Surgery, in 1575") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance vesalius 1543 titian","Vesalius was born in Brussels and completed his medical training in Paris. He became Professor of Anatomy at Padua University in Italy, an important centre for medical training during the Renaissance. His book 'The Fabric of the Human Body' (1543) was illustrated by the famous artist Titian and proved that some of Galen's theories – about the workings of the heart, for example - were wrong") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance william harvey discover 1628 heart circulation","William Harvey was a doctor at St. Bartholomew's hospital in London and a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. He was the physician to James I and Charles I. In 1628 William Harvey proved that the heart was a pump that forced blood around the body through arteries. Veins then returned the blood to the heart where it was recycled") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance contributions vesalius surgery titian","Vesalius published his great book 'The Fabric of the Human Body' in 1543. The famous artist Titian produced over 200 anatomical illustrations for it that proved that some of Galen's theories – about the workings of the heart, for example - were wrong. It was soon available in every medical school in Europe") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance general fail progress during renaissance midwifery midwives","Despite new medical discoveries, many doctors still practiced old ways. Most sick people could not afford to see a trained physician. Instead, they consulted midwives who assisted with childbirths and made herbal remedies to treat illnesses. Minor surgeries were not done in the hospital but at the local barbershop. Barber-surgeons used the same sharp instruments to cut hair as they did to lance boils, remove warts, extract teeth, and blood-let") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance harvey able discoveries heart blood circulation","William Harvey made his groundbreaking discoveries about blood circulation by experimenting on live animals and dissecting the bodies of executed criminals. His work was helped by the discovery that veins contained valves. He realised that these valves stopped the blood from travelling back the wrong way to the heart. Galen's theory (that the body made new blood as its supplies were used up) was proved wrong") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance limitations harvey discoveries heart blood circulation","After his work on blood circulation was published, William Harvey actually lost patients. His ideas were considered eccentric. Moreover, they did little to help doctors determine the causes of illnesses and treatments") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance pare ideas gain general support during lifetime","Despite having the support of the King (to whom he was personal phyisician) The Paris College of Physicians tried to stop the publication of Paré’s texts and never accepted him because he was only a barber-surgeon") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance paré paré's ideas misleading unhelpful pare","Although Paré’s ideas were an important development, his practices actually introduced germs from the surgeon's hands into the wound and thereby increased the chances of infection") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance printing press lead renaissance advances gutenberg caxton","The invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg 1454 and its use by Caxton in England in 1476 helped to spread ideas quickly and cheaply. Some of these were new, some were ideas revived from Greek and Roman authors") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance reformation lead developments renaissance protestant catholic","The division of the Church into Protestant and Catholic branches during the Renaissance period (The Reformation) led to a decline in its overall power and to a relaxation regarding the rules of dissection, which it had always opposed") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance religion hinder progress renaissance","During the Renaissance, the anatomist Vesalius was hindered by the Church, which did not allow dissections. As a result, Vesalius had to remove bones from graves. He even stole a body from the gallows so that he could explore the anatomy of the human body!") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance renaissance hospitals","Foucault called Renaissance hospitals 'antechambers of death', but this is probably harsh. During the Renaissance hospitals came increasingly to specialise; some continued to look after the poor, others became orphanages. Santa Maria Nuova looked after the sick poor") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance renaissance public health source concern erasmus","Erasmus was a Dutch philosopher whose letters from England show that public health and sanitation remained poor: “Almost all the floors [in houses] are of clay and rushes from the marshes … the foundation sometimes remains for twenty years, harbouring spittle and vomit and urine of dogs and men”") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance renaissance","Renaissance means 're-birth'. It describes the period of great change in which took place in Europe from about 1400 until the mid 18th century") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance renaissance","The Renaissance (meaning 'rebirth') is the name given to the explosion in creativity which took place in Italy during the 14th Century") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance surgery fail muslim arab arabs muslims progress renaissance cauterise cauterisation","In the practice of surgery and medical treatments, progress was slow and techniques were often similar to the ones used in the Middle Ages. For example, the main method of stopping a wound bleeding was to cauterise or seal it with a hot iron or boiling oil. Muslim doctors had developed this technique 500 years earlier") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance surgery practiced renaissance","As surgery developed in the Renaissance, surgeons were expected to have more formal qualifications. Now they were frequently educated gentlemen rather than enthusiastic barbers") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance voyages exploration lead developments during renaissance quinine tobacco","The voyages of exploration that took place during the Renaissance led to the discovery of new drugs such as quinine, although on the other hand they also led to the introduction of tobacco into Europe, which has since damaged the health of millions") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance warfare lead advances during renaissance gunpowder","New developments in warfare during the Renaissance, such as the use of gunpowder weapons, created new wounds which called for the development of new surgical techniques and tools") ques[n++]=new Array("f.renaissance women work doctors during renaissance witchcraft","In the Renaissance, women were not allowed to go to university, but large numbers of women were involved in healing - making medicines, setting bones and treating small wounds. An estimated 95% of unlicensed practitioners were women. Increasingly, unlicensed women found themselves on the edge of society, and towards the end of the Renaissance more and more were put on trial for practicing witchcraft") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth edward jenner smallpox","Edward Jenner was a country doctor who was aware that milkmaids who caught cowpox from cattle were immune from the much more serious disease of smallpox. He deliberately injected patients with the milder disease to create immunity – a process known as vaccination (after the latin term for cow, ‘vacca’)") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth edwin chadwick","Edwin Chadwick was a 19th century lawyer whose investigations showed a clear link between dirt and disease and challenged the idea that governments could not prevent poor health in the population (“The annual loss of life from filth and bad ventilation are greater than the loss from death or wounds in any wars”)") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth florence nightingale crimean war","Florence Nightingale was a pioneering nurse during the Crimean War. She stressed the importance of hygiene in nursing and published 200 books, reports and pamphlets. She also raised nursing to the level of a respectable profession for women") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth joseph lister discover antiseptic carbolic acid","Joseph Lister was a 19th Century surgeon known as “The Father of Antiseptic Surgery”. He read about Pasteur’s work on germ theory and, based on this, developed an antiseptic spray made from carbolic acid to clean wounds and protect them from infection. He also insisted that doctors washed their hands between visiting each patient") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth louis pasteur discover microbes microbe","Louis Pasteur (1822-95) was a French chemist who proved that the old idea that diseases start out of nothing (spontaneous generation) was inaccurate and that air-borne microbes cause disease. He discovered several vaccines that worked against certain illnesses in animals and one against rabies that also worked on humans, although he never matched a particular microbe to a particular disease") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth robert koch","Robert Koch was a German scientist whose careful research and observation using the microscope, photography and dyes led to his identification of the particular microbes causing tuberculosis and cholera") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth rontgen discover x-rays 1895 cat mri","In 1895, the discovery of X-rays by Rontgen allowed doctors to see into the body without cutting it open. In less than a century, an entire medical specialty developed based on this discovery called radiology. New imaging technologies, such as ultrasound and CAT and MRI scans, help doctors identify diseases and provide better treatment options") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth advances during 19th century wine war microscope telegraph","Economically, industrialisation created a lot of wealth which funded education (Pasteur and Koch both had a secular university education) and scientific research. Pasteur, for example, was sponsored by the French wine industry to discover why wine was going bad. Militarily, the Franco Prussian war 1870 heated the personal rivalry between Pasteur and Koch. Technologically, the development of the microscope helped the development of germ theory, and telegraphs and trains made it possible to spread ideas quickly") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth hospitals improved 19th century 1834 1853 1871","The 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act ensured that Medical officers were appointed to workhouses to provide basic medical care for the poor, whilst Acts of 1853 and 1871 made vaccinations compulsory") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth housing conditions improved 19th century 1868 1875 artisans","An 1868 Act encouraged the improvement of slum housing or its demolition, whilst the 1875 Artisans Dwelling Act made the house owners responsible for keeping their properties in good order and gave local authorities the right to buy and demolish slums if they were not improved") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth hygiene public health improved 19th 1832 century typhus cholera","Industrialisation led to overcrowding in the cities, which in turn provided the perfect breeding ground for diseases such as typhus and cholera - a disease spread in contaminated drinking water which created a European epidemic in 1832") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth hygiene public health improved 19th century 1866 1875","In an attempt to control the living and working environment of the people, the government passed the 1866 Sanitary Act, which made local authorities responsible for sewers, water and street cleaning.The 1875 Public Health Act brought together a range of acts covering sewerage and drains, water supply, housing and disease") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth prevented greater advances being 19th century hospital care florence nightingale 1854 scutari","Sexism prevented the ideas of Florence Nightinglale taking hold. The male doctors at Scutari in 1854 originally objected most strongly to the idea of Nightingale and other female nurses being in the hospital") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth prevented greater public health advances being 19th century","Most governments during the 19th century did not believe it was their job to interfere too much in everyday life, especially when it would be expensive") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth vaccination unpopular 19th century jenner 1840","Although Jenner did not patent his discoveries, doctors could still charge for administering vaccines, which made them out of reach of the poor – who themselves feared that the process would give them “cow-like” physical features! Not until 1840 that the vaccination was widely available, and not until the late 20th century was the disease eradicated") ques[n++]=new Array("g.nineteenth women development 19th century elizabeth blackwell mary seacole 1857","Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) graduated from Geneva Medical College in 1849 and became the first woman to earn an M.D. degree. In 1857, she opened the New York Infirmary to serve poor women and children, and to provide more women opportunities to study medicine and nursing. Mary Seacole, a Jamaican nurse, went to Britain to assist in the Crimean War. When the war office refused her, she established a hotel to feed and care for sick and wounded soldiers. On the battlefield, she was known as “Mother Seacole.”") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth alexander fleming discover 1928 penicillin florey chain 1942 antibiotics","In 1928 Alexander Fleming discovered that a mould which could be used to kill many harmful bacteria, preventing infection spreading around the body. This discovery was called penicillin. However, another 14 years passed before it was fully developed by Florey and Chain and mass-produced in 1942 in America. It is still widely used today and led to the development of more antibiotic drugs that fight infections and save lives") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth christian barnard heart transplant contribution surgery 1967 1950 washkansky cyclosporine 1974","After the first kidney transplant was carried out in Chicago in 1950, transplants became increasing common and helped lengthen life. The first heart transplant was performed by Dr. Christian Barnard in December 1967, when he transplanted the heart of a road accident victim into a 59 year old man, Louis Washkansky. In 1974 the discovery of cyclosporine helped to counteract the body's rejection of the donor organs and protected the patient against infection") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth dna crick watson franklin helix","The discovery of DNA is often credited to James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, but the research of Rosalind Franklin - a close associate - was arguably essential. Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is an acid molecule in the form of a double helix (two interweaving spirals) that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all living organisms") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth first test tube baby louise brown 1978 robert edwards ivf","Louise Brown was the first person to be born after in vitro fertilisation (a 'test-tube baby') on July 25th 1978. Since then, over a million other babies have been born through IVF treatment, providing the chance of a family life to countless couples. On the other hand, the doctor in charge of the programme, Robert Edwards, recalls that 'We were called everything under the sun - immoral, unethical, dehumanising.'") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth florey chain","Florey and Chain found a way to mass produce penicillin. Florey was in charge of the lab and oversaw and approved all the projects, whilst Chain seems to have been most active in the actual research") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth gerhard domagk discover 1932 domagk sulphonamides","In 1932 Domagk, inspired by the achievements of Paul Ehrlich's team, discovered drugs called sulphonamides. Made from chemical dyes, they killed certain bacteria and helped in the treatment of pneumonia and scarlet fever. May and Baker, British scientists, discovered that a derivative of the sulphonamide drug could be used against pneumonia. On the other hand, Sulphonamide drugs can damage the kidney and liver") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth microscope anthony leeuwenhoek robert hooke","Although microscopes were first developed during the Renaissance, Anthony Leeuwenhoek developed them radically during the 17th Century and Robert Hooke realized their potential with groundbreaking studies of insects") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth paul ehrlich discover salvarson 606 1909 syphilis magic bullet","Ehrlich's team discovered Salvarson 606 in 1909. This was a controversial treatment for the sexually transmitted disease, Syphilis - which can cause madness and death. Paul Ehrlich worked for Koch and discovered that dyes could be used to make specific bacteria easier to see. He realised that this could be used to send drugs directly to the bacteria he wanted to kill without harming the rest of the body - this is sometimes called a 'magic bullet'") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth 20th century technology led developments biotechnology insulin","Advances in bioengineering, computing power, materials technology and many other areas of science have led to the development of many medical devices. During heart surgery, an artificial heart and lung machine keep the patient alive. Hearing aids and cochlea implants bring sound to the hard of hearing. Biotechnology is allowing pure drugs, such as human insulin, to be produced in large quantities") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth antibiotics developed 20th century paul ehrlich magic bullet selman waksman tuberculosis pneumonia meningitis","Antibiotics were invented by Paul Ehrlich during his effort to conquer syphilis and advanced by Alexander Fleming and Selman Waksman as they developed penicillin and streptomycin. Antibiotics have saved billions of lives by combating septicaemia, tuberculosis, pneumonia, meningitis, post- operative infections and sexually transmitted diseases") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth developments place vaccination 20th century 1980 edward jenner measles polio diphtheria whooping cough","In 1980 the World Health Organisation announced that the deadly smallpox virus had been completely eradicated. This was the greatest testament to the work of Edward Jenner, who had developed vaccination in the nineteenth century. Immunisation programmes in the West also radically cut the mortality rates of such childhood diseases as measles, polio, diphtheria and whooping cough") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth governments developments health 1911 1942 1948 nhs penicillin","The Liberal government in Britain (1906-1916) provided the first social security reforms and National Insurance for health care set up in 1911. Penicillin was first mass produced at government cost in 1942 in response to the demand created by the casualties of World War Two. The Labour government set up the NHS (National Health Service) in 1948, providing free health care for all") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth impact aids ryan white 1985","Aids, first recognised in the early 1980s, was first met with intolerance and bigotry. In 1985, at 13, Ryan White became a symbol of the intolerance that is inflicted on AIDS victims. Once it became known that White, a haemophiliac, had contracted the disease from a tainted blood transfusion, school officials banned him from classes. The disease had claimed more than 22 million lives worldwide by 2000. In Africa, lack of the drugs known to inhibit Aids meant that up to 40% of all deaths among sexually active people were due to the disease") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth new health problems emerged towards end 20th century bulemia anorexia","New diseases and conditions have appeared in the 20th Century, some resulting from the sedentary lifestyles of the populations of the West and the effects of pollution. They included asthma, allergies, obesity, declining sperm counts and hormonal changes. Media pressure has helped to create eating disorders such as bulemia and anorexia among young people eager to conform to the 'ideal image' and the use of recreational drugs is becoming increasingly common") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth problems still remain enter 21st century","Many diseases can now be controlled and treated but this takes money. In places such as Africa, South America and Asia, diseases like HIV/AIDS, cholera, tuberculosis, pneumonia and malaria remain major killers. Also, bacteria are emerging which are resistant to antibiotics. Finally, the increased lifespan of people thanks to medical advances is placing a strain on economies around the world") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth treatment diabetes improved 20th century insulin banting macleod 1921","Insulin was discovered by Frederick Banting and John Macleod in 1921. After extensive tests, they were awarded the Nobel Prize. One year diabetes - the condition of having too much sugar in the blood - was an automatic death sentence; the next, people had hopes of living full and productive lives even with the disease. Estimates show there are more than 15 million diabetics living today who would have died at an early age without insulin") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth world war one help spread disease 1918 influenza epidemic pandemic","A pandemic is an epidemic (major outbreak of disease) that spreads over a large area. The most famous pandemic is the Black Death (1348-49). Also, the 1918 to 1919 influenza pandemic which was spread across continents by soldiers returning from fighting in World War I. The disease killed an estimated 30 million people – more than were killed in the war itself. The massive troop and civilian movements all over the world meant the deadly virus was carried back to almost every corner of the earth when the troops went home from the killing fields of Europe") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth world war one lead developments landsteiner harold delf gillies post traumatic stress disorder","The First World War (1914-18) created the impetus for the application of Landsteiner's work on blood groups and transfusions. Richard Lowisohn found a method of preventing blood donations from clotting in storage, although it wasn't until the 1930s that the first real blood banks were established. Harold Delf Gillies made great advances in facial reconstructive surgery that were later developed in World War Two, and Post-Traumatic Stress disorder (then known as 'shell shock') was first recognised as a genuine condition, although this didn't prevent many sufferers being executed for 'cowardice' when they refused to fight") ques[n++]=new Array("h.twentieth world war two lead developments surgery penicillin archibald mcindoe guinea plastic","The Second World War (1939-45) helped to develop penicillin and plastic surgery. Firstly, penicillin was first mass produced at government cost in 1942 in response to the demand created by the casualties of War. Secondly, Sir Archibald McIndoe established a pioneering centre for plastic surgery during World War Two at the Queen Victoria Hospital at East Grinstead. His work in both physically and psychologically rehabilitating badly burned aircrew earned him an international reputation. 'The Guinea Pig Club' of his ex-patients perpetuates his memory") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc first woman female doctor elizabeth blackwell anderson","The first woman to graduate from medical school in the USA was Elizabeth Blackwell (1849); in the UK the honour goes to Elizabeth Anderson (1874). Both women had to struggle hard to overcome sexism to succeed in their professions") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc galen hippocrates","Galen and Hippocrates were medical men from the Ancient World. I suggest you ask me about each one separately") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc germ theory varro","Germ theory is the idea that diseases are often caused by microorganisms. Ancient Roman writers such as Varro said that disease spread through the air by 'creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose'. However, most people disagreed and thought that disease generated spontaneously until the pioneering work of Pasteur in the nineteenth century") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc marie pierre curie","Marie and Pierre Curie were Polish scientists who discovered radioactivity at the turn of the 20th Century. Pierre died in a traffic accident; his wife died of radiation poisoning") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc paracelsus toxicology poison poisons","Paracelsus (1493-1541) made important discoveries about poisons (toxicology). He most famously said that all substances can be regarded as poisonous or beneficial - it just depends on the dose they are taken in") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc pasteur koch","Both Pasteur and Koch made valuable contributions to medicine. I suggest you ask me about each one separately") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc anthrax","Anthrax is a deadly disease. The bacteria responsible for it can lie dormant for decades or centuries until they find suitable conditions to thrive in. As a result, they are often used in biological warfare") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc antispetic antiseptics antibiotics antibiotic disinfectant disinfectants","Antiseptics are substances applied to living tissue to reduce infection. They are different from antibiotics (which destroy microorganisms within the body), and disinfectants (which destroy microorganisms on non-living objects)") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc artery arteries","Arteries are blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart. Veins, in contrast, carry blood towards the heart") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc bluetongue","Bluetongue is a disease spread by the bites of infected insects between sheep. It creates fever and death") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc bubonic pneumonic plague","Bubonic plague is spread by the bites of infected fleas, carried by rats. It was known as the 'Black Death' due to the dark swellings which appeared under the arms of infected people. Pneumonic plague is spread through droplets of mucus coughed up by infected people. This disease was the 'Great Plague' which hit London in 1665-1666") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc cancer","Cancer develops when cells in a part of the body begin to grow out of control. Although there are many kinds of cancer, they all start because of out-of-control growth of abnormal cells. The name 'cancer' was coined by Hippocrates, who was using the Greek word for 'crab' due to the shape of the tumours. Many treatments exist for the disease, the success of which depends on many factors including how early the disease is spotted") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc carpel tunnel cts","Carpel Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) is a weakening of the hand and forearm due to the compression of nerves in the wrist. It became widely known due to the growth of cases resulting from people working for many hours at computers and typewriters") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc chlamydia","Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted disease which can eventually cause infertility in women. Because there are often no obvious symptoms of the disease, it is important for people who have numerous sexual partners to have regular health checks") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc common cold","The common cold generally involves a runny nose, nasal congestion, and sneezing. You may also have a sore throat, cough, headache, or other symptoms. Over 200 viruses can cause a cold") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc genetic engineering","Genetic engineering is about scientists altering the 'recipes' for making life - the genes which you find in all living things. Genetically modified food may last longer and taste better, but critics are concerned that the long-term implications have not been considered") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc injections injection","William Harvey's discovery of circulation of the blood (1628) led to numerous experiments with intravenous infusions; but it was only in the mid-19th Century that the familiar needle syringes were developed") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc irritable bowel ibs","Irritable Bowel Syndrome is characterised by pains in the bowels. The cause is not known") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc meningitis","Meningitis is an inflammation of the brain lining, or meninges, which can cause serious disability or death. A tell-tale test is to press a clear glass firmly against the skin to see if the rash fades and loses its colour. If it doesn't, contact your doctor immediately") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc novocaine novacaine procaine","Novocaine is a local anesthetic often referred to as procaine. It is used on a wide variety of nerve blocks. It is most commonly used by dentists, when they are pulling out teeth. And it is also used in surgeries so that the patient will not feel any pain while being operated on") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc pomander pomanders","Pomanders - bags of herbs - were held to the mouth and nose during plague attacks in the belief that the good smells would keep people from catching the disease") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc pox","'Pox' is a term used to loosely describe a number of diseases - syphillis, chickenpox and smallpox among them - which can leave scars on the skin") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc sars","SARS is a severe respiratory disease caused by SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV). It was first recognised in Guangdong Province in China in November 2002, and spread worldwide before being contained by 5 July 2003") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc scurvy lind","Scurvy is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Symptoms include loss of hair and teeth. It can easily be treated by eating fresh fruits. In 1746, James Lind, a British naval surgeon, established the fact that oranges and lemons were effective in curing scurvy. The incidence of scurvy among the British sailors sharply declined upon routine provision of lemon juice on board") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc tampon tampons","In 1929, the modern tampon was first invented by Dr. Earle Haas. The Ancient Egyptians had used papyrus; thereafter, a range of materials was used including sponge, grass and cotton") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc virus viruses","A virus (from the Latin word meaning meaning poison) is a microscopic particle that can infect the cells of a living thing. AIDS, Flu and rabies are all viral diseases. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses; the best way of controlling them is through vaccinations to create immunity") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc witchcraft","In prehistoric times, Witch doctors called Shamen contacted the spirit world through mysterious trances, and it was they who administered herbal medicines. In the Renaissance, unlicensed medical women found themselves on the edge of society, and towards the end of the Renaissance more and more were put on trial for practicing witchcraft") ques[n++]=new Array("m.misc wondering womb","The 'Wondering Womb' theory was developed by Hippocrates and remained popular until modern times; it suggested that mental and emotional problems in women were caused by menstruation (periods) which sucked out their life energy") ques[n++]=new Array("z clitoris homosexuality homosexual lesbian homosexuals lesbians","This is a site about medicine, not about sex and sexuality") ques[n++]=new Array("z color colour","Colour has no objective reality so I refuse to answer that question. What you see as blue may well be what I see as yellow - there's no way you can test that your perception of colour is the same as anyone else's") ques[n++]=new Array("z hello hi howdy afternoon evening","Hello - why not ask me a question?") ques[n++]=new Array("z hitler weimar hastings becket 1066 hitler ww2 wwii","You're interviewing the wrong person, I think. I can only answer questions about medicine") ques[n++]=new Array("z war","War often helps to accelerate medical advances; Pare was one example of a doctor who made his discoveries due to the massive amount of patients he had to deal with during wartime; World War One saw pioneering work done in prosthetics and World War Two saw the birth of plastic surgery") ques[n++]=new Array("z you feeling name ok okay","I'm Dr. Fox, the Medicine Through Time Expert, created by www.activehistory.co.uk. I'm feeling really well today") ques[n++]=new Array("z you born old paid mom mother father sisters","That's a personal issue and one that I'm not prepared to discuss with you") ques[n++]=new Array("z you fox","I am called Dr. Fox (a) Because I am a doctor; (b) Because my surname is Fox. Congratulations on asking the most obvious question in the world") ques[n++]=new Array("z you gay lesbian lez lezzer lezzy lesbean homosexual lez virgin sex family children suck love anal boyfriend married husband boobs tits","I refuse to respond to that. I hardly know you, after all","That really isn't any of your business, frankly","Let's try to keep personal issues out of this interview","Considering we've only just met I find that rather blunt","I'll leave that for you to decide") ques[n++]=new Array("z you pretty marry beautiful sexy fancy shag attractive horny foxy gorgeous cute","You're very charming, but I think we need to keep this conversation purely professional","Stop it - you're embarassing me...","Please, let's focus on the important issue of medicine!") ques[n++]=new Array("z you type types kinds sorts kind sort","Oh, I don't really think I could provide a brief answer to such a generalised question") ques[n++]=new Array("z you ugly horrible nasty disgusting rude idiot stupid thick moron","That's your opinion","The feeling is mutual","If I had any respect for your opinions, I might be bothered","Does this face look bothered?") ques[n++]=new Array("z you wearing","Clothes - what do you think?") ques[n++]=new Array("z your","I think that's quite enough about me already. Let's get back to the main subject of Medicine Through Time") ques[n++]=new Array("z your","Medicine is concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through its study, diagnosis, and treatment. The term is derived from the Latin 'medicina' meaning 'healing'. Medicine Through Time is the study of how this process has developed over the centuries in different countries")