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E. The Approach of Philosophers to the Issue of Causation
▪ The three positions you read about on the previous page are sandwiched between two extremes which reject the idea that human beings can influence the world around them in any meaningful way, whether they try to learn from the past or not.
▪ Read through the following information, then answer the questions which follow.
(a) Chaos theory The idea that everything is simply down to chance events which we have no control over.
Example : The French Revolution occurred because Queen Marie-Antoinette told the French people to eat cake when they said they had no bread, because she was in a bad mood with an upset stomach, caused by a fly leaving germs on her food. So, the French Revolution was caused by a fly.
Key Quote: "Nothing is inevitable until it happens" (AJP Taylor).
This is known as the "Cleopatra's Nose" theory after the French historian Pascal, who attributed the development of the Roman Empire to the failure of Mark Anthony to defeat the Romans in battle, because he was infatuated with Cleopatra, and in particular her distinctive nose. Similarly, a well respected historian such as AJP Taylor made a whole career making statements such as "World War One was the result of bad railway timetables"; again, the division of the Christian Church into Protestant and Catholic – with all that this has entailed – can be pinned on the revolt of Martin Luther against the Pope, and Luther himself only became a monk after pledging to devote his life to God after being caught unexpectedly in a terrifying thunderstorm. According to this interpretation, the Northern Ireland Conflict was caused by a thunderstorm in 1517.
(b) Determinism The idea that everything is the inescapable result of what went before.
Example: The French Revolution occurred because King Louis refused to give power to Parliament, because he thought he was appointed by God, because that is what the Bible said, because that is God’s will. Therefore, he was killed because it was God’s will.
Key Quote: “What we call chaos is just patterns we haven't recognized. What we call random is just patterns we cant decipher. There is no free will. There are no variables. There is only the inevitable.” – Chuck Palahniuck
Although individuals think they have freedom of action, this is only because they are ignorant of how the various forces acting upon them (climate, society, family, upbringing, previous experience, genetics, and so on) have led them to make decisions. A man on a raft in the middle of the Atlantic ocean may congratulate himself on having the free will to paddle this way or that – or not to paddle at all. His ripples, however, make no impact upon the waves and the tides he remains at the mercy of. For example, I could claim to have the free will to go next door and punch Mr. Bowles violently in the face. However, we all know that this is not going to happen – society has taught me that this is unacceptable; my knowledge of Mr. Bowles tells me that I would end up in hospital if he retaliated; and genetically I am not an 'Alpha Male' who sees violence as the solution to problems; and I have no argument with Mr. Bowles anyway. On the other extreme, even if I made the point of acting in a deliberately "random" fashion, my actions merely appear "random" because I am not consciously aware of how my background, upbringing, genetics and so on led me to choose that particular way of expressing my "free will" (in just the same way, a computer is impossible of generating truly random numbers). A simple ignorance of those factors does not mean that they do not exist; they merely lead you into a fool's paradise of thinking you have free will.
Questions
Read through the information on this page and then answer this question:
How would (a) A chaos theorist and (b) A determinist explain the way in which your parents conceived you?!
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Why has a German town stopped new memorials for Nazi victims?
20th Century · Nazi Germany and the Holocaust · The Guardian
A town in Germany has voted to stop the installation of new Stolpersteine, or stumbling stones, which remember people persecuted and murdered by the Nazis. These small brass plaques are placed in pavements outside the homes or workplaces of victims. Each one gives a name and brief details about what happened to that person. More than 128,000 Stolpersteine have been installed across Europe, making the project one of the world's largest grassroots memorial schemes. In Heidenau, councillors from the far-right Alternative for Germany party joined members of the conservative Christian Democratic Union to approve the halt. Supporters say the plaques are walked on and should be replaced by one larger memorial. Opponents argue that the stones make victims part of everyday life and help people remember that they were neighbours, workers and families. A legal challenge is now being planned.
Why it matters: The debate shows that remembering the past can become a political argument. The Holocaust happened more than 80 years ago, but people still disagree about how it should be remembered. The Stolpersteine also make history personal by linking huge events such as Nazi persecution to ordinary homes and individual lives.
Classroom question: “Should memorials remember individual victims or focus on the whole event?”
What did Britain know about the Holocaust during World War Two?
20th Century · World War Two and the Holocaust · The Guardian
A new exhibition is examining how much Britain knew about the Holocaust while it was happening. Many people believe that the British public only learned about the Nazi murder of Europe's Jews after the war. However, newspapers, radio broadcasts, government reports and witnesses were already describing mass killings during the early 1940s. The Manchester Guardian reported especially strongly on the persecution of Jewish people and argued that Britain and other countries should do more to help refugees. Information was often smuggled out of occupied Poland by couriers working for the Polish government-in-exile in London. At the same time, Britain had strict immigration rules and some people opposed allowing more Jewish refugees into the country. The exhibition will travel to different parts of the United Kingdom while plans continue for a permanent Holocaust Memorial and Learning Centre in London.
Why it matters: This story raises a difficult question about what people do when they receive shocking information. Knowing about a crime does not automatically lead to action. The history also shows that governments and ordinary people can respond in different ways, with some offering help while others fear refugees or refuse to change their policies.
Classroom question: “Why might governments know about a terrible event but still act slowly?”
How are Lenape people bringing their language and culture back?
19th Century and Contemporary History · Indigenous Peoples and Colonialism · The Guardian
A new exhibition in New York is telling the story of the Lenape, the Indigenous people whose homeland included Manhattan. During the 19th century, the United States forced many Indigenous children into boarding schools. They were separated from their families, given new names and punished for speaking their own languages. The aim was to make them abandon their cultures. One object in the exhibition is a 150-year-old hymnal written partly in Munsee, a Lenape language. Missionaries originally used it to teach Christian songs, but Lenape people are now using it to recover old words and grammar. The exhibition also includes clothing, music, paintings and modern protest art. The Lenape were badly affected by disease, violence and forced removal, but their story did not end. Today, communities in the United States and Canada are working to protect their language, land and traditions.
Why it matters: This story shows that colonialism did not only take land. It also attacked languages, names and traditions. It is surprising that a book once used to erase Lenape culture is now helping to rebuild it. The exhibition also challenges the idea that Indigenous peoples belong only to the past. Lenape communities are still active and are shaping their own future.
Classroom question: “Why was keeping the Lenape language so important?”
What can old records tell us about people who lived under slavery?
19th Century · Slavery and the British Empire · The Guardian
Nearly four million records about enslaved people in 20 former British colonies can now be searched online. The collection contains about 300,000 pages created between 1813 and 1840. The records include names, ages, family connections, births, deaths and transfers between owners. They were originally made by the British government to monitor enslaved people and stop illegal trading after the transatlantic slave trade was abolished in 1807. Today, descendants are using them for a very different purpose: finding their ancestors and rebuilding family histories. Researchers have already traced some families across six generations. The records cover places including Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Trinidad, Mauritius and South Africa. They cannot show everything about a person’s life, because they were created by a system that treated human beings as property. However, they can reveal names, relationships and stories that might otherwise have disappeared.
Why it matters: Many accounts of slavery focus on governments, ships, plantations and slave owners. These records help bring attention back to the people who were enslaved. A name, an age or the name of a child can make the past feel more personal. The collection also shows that slavery still affects families and communities today.
Classroom question: “How can a person’s name change the way we understand slavery?”
What can a Sami writer from 1910 tell us about life today?
20th Century · Indigenous Peoples and Land Rights · The Guardian
A new exhibition in Kiruna, northern Sweden, is showing the work of Johan Turi, a Sami writer and artist who lived around the beginning of the twentieth century. Turi was one of the first Sami people to write about Sami life in his own language. His drawings and writing describe reindeer herding, beliefs, family life and the pressure placed on Sami communities by settlers, railways, mining and national borders. The exhibition has opened as Sweden prepares to receive a report about the mistreatment of Sami people by the state. The Sami are the Indigenous people of northern Norway, Sweden, Finland and part of Russia. Many still face disputes over land because mining, wind farms and other industries can damage the areas needed for reindeer herding. Turi hoped that telling his own story would make powerful people understand Sami lives. More than a century later, his work is still part of that struggle.
Why it matters: This story shows why people want to tell their own history instead of allowing outsiders to speak for them. Turi's work is both a record of everyday life and a protest against unfair treatment. It also shows that problems involving land, language and discrimination can continue for generations.
Classroom question: “Why did Johan Turi want Sami people to tell their own history?”
How did Britain’s empire change the lives of Kenyan tea workers?
20th Century · Colonialism · The Guardian
A new documentary about Kenya's tea plantations has brought attention to the history behind a drink enjoyed around the world. The film focuses on the Kikuyu people, whose farming traditions go back centuries. During British colonial rule, many Kikuyu people were forced off their ancestral land while their labour helped make plantations profitable. The documentary follows workers, activists and families who are still seeking justice and the return of land. It also explores how some of the inequalities created during colonial rule have continued under modern companies and governments. One of the film-makers discovers that her own grandfather was involved in colonial abuse, making the story personal as well as political. Kenya became independent in 1963, but independence did not automatically solve every problem created by colonialism. The film asks viewers to think about how products bought in other countries can be connected to histories of land seizure, forced labour and resistance.
Why it matters: Tea can seem like an ordinary part of daily life, but its history can involve empire, land loss and exploitation. This story connects the British Empire to the experiences of real families in Kenya. It also shows that independence may end colonial rule without immediately removing every unfair system left behind.
Classroom question: “Why did land become such an important issue in colonial Kenya?”
Why are people arguing about who really fought in World War Two?
20th Century · World War Two and China · Reuters via Internazionale
Taiwan has challenged the way China is presenting the history of World War Two after Chinese President Xi Jinping and US President Donald Trump praised the wartime alliance between China and the United States. Beijing presents Chinese Communist forces as the main force resisting Japan, while Taiwan argues that the Republic of China government was the recognised Allied government in China and carried much of the fighting. The dispute is connected to the Chinese Civil War, which ended in 1949 when Mao Zedong’s Communists took control of mainland China and the Republic of China government moved to Taiwan. Taiwan fears that a version of wartime history led by Beijing could influence American policy towards the island. The argument shows how governments use memories of the past to support present-day political claims.
Why it matters: This is a clear example of history being used in modern international politics. It links World War Two to the Chinese Civil War, the creation of Communist China and the continuing dispute over Taiwan. Students can see that historical accounts are not always neutral, especially when governments use the past to justify power, territory or national identity.
Classroom question: “Why might governments want to control the story of World War Two?”
Why is the Smithsonian arguing about how American history should be told?
Contemporary History · Museums and American History · The Guardian
The Smithsonian’s outgoing secretary, Lonnie Bunch, has defended the institution after criticism from President Donald Trump and his administration. Speaking at the National Museum of African American History and Culture, Bunch rejected claims that the Smithsonian is unpatriotic because its museums discuss slavery, racism and other difficult parts of American history. He argued that the United States cannot be properly understood without examining both achievements and injustice. The dispute comes as the White House reviews Smithsonian museums before the 250th anniversary of American independence in 2026. Trump has called for more emphasis on national heroes and has criticised what he describes as negative interpretations of the country’s past. The argument raises a central historical question: should museums mainly celebrate a nation, or should they present its successes and its wrongdoing together?
Why it matters: This story connects directly to slavery, the Civil Rights Movement and the question of who controls national history. It is useful for teaching historical interpretation because students can compare different ideas about patriotism, evidence and museum displays. It also shows that debates about the past can become political arguments in the present.
Classroom question: “Should a museum show a country’s achievements and wrongdoings together?”
Why has an old Northern Irish marching route caused new protests?
Contemporary History · Northern Ireland and the Troubles · The Guardian
A Protestant Orange Order parade has taken place along Garvaghy Road in Portadown, Northern Ireland, after almost 30 years of restrictions. The road runs through a mainly Catholic area, and many residents opposed the march because similar processions became flashpoints during the Troubles. Courts allowed a smaller parade to go ahead, but hundreds of protesters gathered, linking arms to block the route. The dispute is connected to the long conflict between unionists, who generally support Northern Ireland remaining part of the United Kingdom, and nationalists, who generally favour a united Ireland. The original Drumcree dispute helped create serious disorder before the route was banned in 1998, the same year as the Good Friday Agreement. The new parade has not led to a return to the violence of the past, but it shows how historical arguments about identity, religion and territory can remain powerful decades after a peace agreement.
Why it matters: This is a vivid way into the Troubles, sectarian division and the Good Friday Agreement. Students can see that peace agreements may stop large-scale violence without removing every disagreement. The story also raises questions about public space, tradition, protest and whether groups should be allowed to repeat historic ceremonies when local residents see them as threatening.
Classroom question: “Why did this march make people feel unsafe?”
Why is Britain still arguing about the Chagos Islands?
Contemporary History · Colonialism and Decolonisation · The Guardian
The British government has put payments to Mauritius on hold while it reviews a deal over the Chagos Islands. The proposed agreement would transfer sovereignty of the islands to Mauritius, while allowing Britain and the United States to continue using the military base on Diego Garcia for 99 years. The deal has been delayed because US President Donald Trump does not support it in its present form. The argument has deep historical roots. In the 1960s, Britain separated the Chagos Islands from Mauritius shortly before Mauritius became independent. Chagossians were then removed from their homes to make way for the Diego Garcia base, and many have never been able to return. Britain now faces pressure over colonialism, the rights of displaced people and the strategic importance of the base. The latest disagreement shows how decisions made during decolonisation still affect international politics and real families today.
Why it matters: This story connects directly to the end of the British Empire, decolonisation and the Cold War. It helps students see that empire did not simply disappear when colonies became independent. Questions about military bases, forced removal, sovereignty and the rights of local people remain part of international relations.
Classroom question: “Who should decide what happens to the Chagos Islands?”
How did Denisovans survive in China thousands of years ago?
Prehistory · Human Evolution and Migration · National Geographic
Researchers studying Bianfu Cave in southwestern China have identified three Denisovan bones, four teeth and more than 1,300 stone tools. The finds include the first known Denisovan forearm bone and connect these ancient humans directly with tools and animal remains. The bones are between about 167,000 and 134,000 years old. The discovery suggests Denisovans lived much farther south than first thought and helps scientists understand how they hunted and used technology.
Why it matters: The story gives students a vivid example of how new evidence changes ideas about human evolution and migration. Denisovans were once known mainly from DNA and a single finger bone. These finds provide more direct evidence of their lives and show that the human past included several different human groups living across Asia.
Classroom question: “How can bones and tools show how ancient people lived?”
What can an untouched Chimú tomb tell us about an ancient empire?
Medieval History · Chimú Empire · National Geographic
Archaeologists working at Chan Chan in Peru have uncovered a largely untouched Chimú funerary platform containing 38 skeletons, weapons, ceramics, jewellery and objects made from shells and metal. The Chimú Empire ruled much of Peru’s northern coast before being conquered by the Inca in the fifteenth century. Because earlier tombs were heavily looted, this discovery gives researchers unusually detailed evidence about elite life, religion, warfare and social organisation.
Why it matters: The discovery introduces students to a major American civilisation that is often overshadowed by the Inca. It also shows why archaeologists need objects in their original positions. The tomb may help explain Chimú beliefs, social ranking and military power while improving understanding of the Inca conquest.
Classroom question: “Why is an untouched tomb more useful than a looted one?”
What can a buried warhorse tell us about ancient Egyptian warfare?
Ancient History · Ancient Egypt · Smithsonian Magazine
Archaeologists excavating a 3,000-year-old fortress in Egypt’s Nile Delta have found the complete skeleton of a young horse, buried with parts of a chariot harness. The site also contains houses, roads, grain stores, pottery ovens, jewellery and inscriptions linked to Ramesses II and his son Merneptah. The fortress protected Egypt’s western frontier from attacks and was also home to soldiers and other residents. The discoveries give a clearer picture of both military life and everyday life during Egypt’s New Kingdom.
Why it matters: The find connects famous pharaohs and battles with the ordinary organisation of a military settlement. It also shows how historians use buildings, animal remains, food stores and inscriptions together to reconstruct the past. Students can consider what evidence tells us about power, warfare and the relationship between people and animals.
Classroom question: “Why would an Egyptian warhorse be given a special burial?”
How did a medieval town end up beneath the North Sea?
Medieval History · Medieval England · Popular Mechanics
Divers exploring the seabed near Cromer in Norfolk have mapped 25 man-made features linked to Shipden, a medieval coastal town swallowed by the sea. Historical records show that Shipden had residents, farmland, pigs, a harbour, manor houses and two churches. Storms, flooding and coastal erosion gradually destroyed the settlement, while a later explosion in 1888 may have damaged or scattered its remains. The search continues for proof of the town’s lost church.
Why it matters: Shipden makes medieval history feel real and local while showing that coastlines and settlements can change dramatically. The story also gives students a useful example of how historians compare written records, physical remains and local legends. It raises questions about how confidently we can reconstruct a place that has partly disappeared.
Classroom question: “Which evidence would best prove that Shipden’s church really existed?”
Could this ancient wall show where Paris first began?
Ancient History · Roman Gaul · The Guardian, reporting Agence France-Presse
Archaeologists have found a 20-metre stretch of ancient wall beneath the Île de la Cité in central Paris. The wall may have formed part of Lutetia, the settlement connected with the Gallic Parisii tribe and later the Roman city. Charred material dates the site to between 200 BC and 10 BC, a period that includes the Roman attack on Lutetia described by Julius Caesar. The discovery may help settle a long-running argument about where ancient Paris was located.
Why it matters: This story connects archaeology with Roman expansion, Julius Caesar and the question of how historians test written evidence. Students can compare Caesar’s account with physical evidence and consider why the location of an ancient settlement can still be debated.
Classroom question: “How could this wall help historians check Julius Caesar’s account?”
What can 934 Roman coins tell us about life in the empire?
Ancient History · Roman Empire · Associated Press
An amateur archaeologist using a metal detector found several Roman silver coins in a field near Wesseling, Germany. When the detector kept signalling, experts excavated the area and uncovered 934 coins weighing more than three kilograms. The hoard was probably buried during the second century AD, when the region was controlled by Rome. Experts estimate that collecting this much money could have taken an ordinary Roman legionary about six years of saving.
Why it matters: The discovery gives students a vivid way to explore Roman money, soldiers, trade and daily life. It also shows how historians use objects and written evidence together. Comparing the hoard with a legionary’s pay helps students think about wealth and inequality inside the Roman Empire.
Classroom question: “Who might have buried the coins, and why were they never collected?”
What can this old Aztec book tell us about the Spanish conquest?
Early Modern History · Aztec Empire and Spanish Conquest · Smithsonian Magazine
The Azcatitlan Codex, a richly illustrated manuscript about the Aztec world and the Spanish conquest, has returned to Mexico for the first time since 1840. It is being displayed at Mexico City’s National Museum of Anthropology on loan from France. Created in the late 1500s or early 1600s, the codex shows migration, rulers, warfare, conquest and religious change. Its return has also reopened questions about who should own important historical objects.
Why it matters: This story gives students a visual source connected to the Aztec Empire and Spanish conquest. It also introduces an important modern question: should historical objects remain in foreign museums, or return to the people whose ancestors created them?
Classroom question: “Why is this manuscript important to people in Mexico today?”
20th Century · Holocaust and Museums · Associated Press
Jewish heirs have filed two lawsuits in California seeking the return of artworks connected to Nazi persecution during the Second World War. One case concerns Lucas Cranach’s paintings Adam and Eve, while the other involves watercolours made by Holocaust survivor Dinah Gottliebova Babbitt while she was imprisoned at Auschwitz. The museums argue that they legally hold the works or that they are important evidence of Nazi crimes.
Why it matters: The cases connect the Holocaust with questions about justice, ownership and historical memory. They show that the effects of Nazi persecution have not ended, and that museums sometimes face difficult choices between returning objects and preserving evidence of the past.
Classroom question: “Who should decide where stolen art belongs today?”
Why did plague keep returning to Europe for centuries after the Black Death?
Early Modern History · Black Death and Plague · University of Tartu
A new study of 26 ancient plague genomes from 11 European archaeological sites shows that plague repeatedly returned after the Black Death of 1347 to 1353. Researchers linked genetic evidence to outbreaks between 1349 and 1710, including epidemics connected with the Thirty Years’ War and the Great Northern War. The study suggests that armies, refugees and traders helped spread the disease, while improved dating methods have made it easier to connect remains with specific historical outbreaks.
Why it matters: This gives students a more accurate picture of the Black Death as part of a much longer history of recurring epidemics. It also connects disease, warfare, migration, trade and scientific evidence, making it useful for lessons on medieval and early modern Europe.
Classroom question: “How might wars and the movement of people have helped plague spread across Europe?”
How could a medieval Norman castle survive hidden inside a Victorian university building?
Medieval History · Norman Ireland · TheJournal.ie
Researchers at University College Dublin have identified substantial remains of the medieval Roebuck Castle inside a building that appeared to be entirely Victorian. The castle was probably built in the early 13th century, soon after the Norman invasion of Ireland, but was long thought to have been demolished. Later builders seem to have constructed around the medieval walls instead. An 18th-century watercolour by Gabriel Beranger helped researchers recognise the surviving features.
Why it matters: The discovery offers an accessible example of how historians combine buildings, artwork and written records to recover the past. It also introduces the Norman presence in Ireland and shows how later generations changed, reused and sometimes accidentally preserved medieval buildings.
Classroom question: “Why might later builders have built around the old castle instead of knocking it down?”
What can six hidden pages reveal about survival during Henry VIII’s Reformation?
Early Modern History · English Reformation · University of Cambridge (cam.ac.uk)
Researchers have identified six pages in a Brighton archive as part of a fifteenth-century Catholic manuscript now held at Yale. The book appears to have belonged to Sir John Gage, an important official who helped Henry VIII dissolve the monasteries. The discovery suggests that Gage may have secretly protected a Catholic text from the destruction he was helping to organise. The pages had been separated from the manuscript for almost a century before researchers matched their handwriting and content. (cam.ac.uk)
Why it matters: This gives students a vivid example of how the English Reformation affected real people and books. It also complicates the idea that everyone simply accepted Henry VIII’s religious changes: some officials publicly served the king while privately remaining Catholic and preserving forbidden religious texts. (cam.ac.uk)
Classroom question: “Why might a powerful Tudor official secretly protect a Catholic book?”
Could new X-ray methods bring lost Roman books back from the ashes of Vesuvius?
Ancient History · Roman Empire · UC Berkeley News (news.berkeley.edu)
Scientists have tested a new way to read the carbonised scrolls buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. They created and burned modern papyrus scrolls, then used X-rays and computer algorithms to detect lead in the ink and virtually unroll the pages. The method may help researchers read more of the roughly 1,800 scrolls from the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum without physically opening them and destroying them. (news.berkeley.edu)
Why it matters: The scrolls could contain works from the ancient world that have been completely lost elsewhere. This story links Roman history with modern technology and raises an accessible question about how historians can recover evidence without damaging the objects that contain it. (news.berkeley.edu)
Classroom question: “Why might historians prefer to scan these Roman scrolls instead of opening them?”
Could modern science help us read books buried by Vesuvius nearly 2,000 years ago?
Ancient History · Roman Empire · UC Berkeley News
Scientists have burned modern papyrus scrolls to recreate the damage suffered by books buried in Herculaneum when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE. By adding tiny amounts of lead to the ink, they made the writing stand out in X-ray scans. The method could help researchers identify ancient scrolls that can be digitally unrolled and read without physically destroying them. The experiment even used passages written by high-school students, including lines from Star Wars and the Bible.
Why it matters: The Herculaneum scrolls may contain unique Roman and Greek works that disappeared from history. This story links the Roman Empire, the eruption of Vesuvius, ancient libraries, archaeology, scientific technology and artificial intelligence. It also raises a clear historical question: how much of the ancient world has been lost simply because texts could not be preserved or read?
Classroom question: “What might these scrolls teach us about Roman life that surviving books cannot?”
