The Meiji Restoration (1853-1894) marks one of the most dramatic transformations in world history - a moment when Japan catapulted from a feudal, isolated society into a modern industrial power in just a few decades. For IBDP History students, it offers a fascinating lens through which to explore themes of modernization, imperialism, and cultural identity. As a Paper 1 topic, it is especially rewarding because it is rich in diverse and accessible sources - from imperial edicts and samurai letters to Western diplomatic accounts and contemporary illustrations. These sources vividly capture the tension between tradition and change, making the Meiji Restoration an ideal case study for developing critical source analysis and evaluation skills.

What were the causes of the Meiji Restoration?

A. Foreign Exploitation

The USA: Why did the Perry Expedition go to Japan? | Source 1 | Source 2

In the summer of 1853, the people of Japan watched in shock as a squadron of unfamiliar, smoke-belching "Black Ships" anchored off their shores - American warships commanded by Commodore Matthew Perry. For more than two centuries, Japan had lived in purposeful isolation, restricting nearly all foreign contact. Perry's sudden arrival threatened that carefully guarded seclusion, calling upon Japan to open its ports to American trade and diplomacy. This moment, and the debate about how to respond to it, created great tensions, controversy and divisions in Japanese society that paved the way for the Meiji Revolution of 1868.

The USA: How did Japan respond to the Perry Expedition?

Commodore Perry stayed for fewer than ten days in 1853, but after he returned in March 1854 with a much larger and more intimidating fleet, the Tokugawa Shogunate - realizing that resisting with force was impossible - decided it had no alternative but to sign the Kanagawa Treaty. The Shogunate capitulated to all the American demands. This treaty stipulated that Japan opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to foreign ships for the purpose of obtaining supplies and repairs. This treaty, and the Harris Treaty which followed in 1858, were considered "unequal" granting foreigners privileges such as control over Japanese tariff levels, which weakened Japan's sovereignty. The resentment and humiliation of these treaties fatally undermined the credibility of the Tokugawa Shogunate and set the stage for the Meiji Revolution of 1868.

European countries: How did they Contribute to the Meiji Restoration?

After reluctantly accepting the Kanagawa and Harris Treaties, Japan quickly signed the Ansei Treaties with Russia, France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands). The resentment caused in Japan by these “Unequal Treaties” was compounded by further humiliation at the hands of foreign powers, particularly Great Britain. For example, in 1862 a British merchant named Charles Richardson was brutally murdered by a group of armed Satsuma samurai near Kanagawa. The British government demanded the payment of £100,000 in reparations from the Shogun, plus £10,000 for the victim’s families, and a separate £25,000 payment from the province of Satsuma. When Satsuma refused to pay, the British fleet bombarded and completely destroyed the city of Kagoshima.

B. Internal Weakness

Internal Weaknesses of the Tokugawa Shogunate

For many centuries, Japan was governed through the Baku-Han system, which balanced power between a central military government (Bakufu) led by the Shogun, and the regional, largely autonomous domains (Han) ruled by the daimyo (feudal lords) and their Samurai warriors. Although the Emperor was regarded as the spiritual heart of the nation, his authority was largely ceremonial; real power lay with the shogun. The last of these regimes was the Tokugawa Shogunate (named after the family that established it), which implemented conservative policies reflecting traditional Confucian values. The Shogunate also enforced an isolationist policy known as Sakoku, making it unlawful for Europeans to trade in Japan, except for the Dutch at one small outpost in Nagasaki. This highly centralized yet semi-feudal order endured for over two centuries, but its eventual collapse in 1868 ushered in the transformative energies of the Meiji era, setting the stage for one of the most dramatic political and social overhauls in Japanese history.

How was the Meiji Restoration achieved?

The Charter Oath and the Meiji Constitution

In 1866, the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance united two powerful domains against the Tokugawa. The shogunate then launched the Second Choshu Expedition, intending to crush the alliance; instead, the modernized Choshu forces won a decisive victory, exposing the shogunate's military weakness. Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi then died, and this provoked the Alliance to seize the political initiative: the January 1868 coup in Kyoto formally abolished the shogunate and ushered in the Meiji Restoration.

Analysis: The Meiji Constitution, 1889

"Read through sections [1], [2] and [3] of the constitution. For each one, summarise the essential points it makes about how the country shall be governed and why. Next, proceed to read through the Chapters of the constitution and answer the questions under each. Finally, produce your own infographic, flowchart or diagram designed to illustrate the constitution of Japan: the role of different figures and institutions, how they relate to each other and so on".

Land Reform, Industrialization and Trade

The Meiji Oligarchs recognized that achieving the national goal of ukoku kyohei ("enrich the country - strengthen the military") required fundamentally transforming Japan from a weak, agricultural, and feudal society into an industrial power. Together, these reforms strengthened the economy, helped finance government projects, and laid the foundation for Japan's emergence as an industrial and military power. These economic changes were also central to gaining diplomatic respect and achieving equality with Western powers.

What challenges did society face after the transition?

Foreign Relations, Sovereignty, and Imperialism

Japan's imperialistic expansion into Asia after the Meiji Restoration was presented domestically as a sign of national strength and modernization. However, these conquests had severe drawbacks:

• Morally, they created deep moral contradictions: in seeking to avoid colonization by Western powers, Japan adopted many of the same imperialist behaviours it had once condemned.
• Socio-Economically, the military-industrial complex swallowed up vast sums of wealth that could have been used for domestic reforms.
• Politically, public life grew increasingly dominated by military values such as obedience, sacrifice, and aggression. This shift eroded democratic development, and politicians who expressed concern were condemned as being 'unpatriotic'.
• Diplomatically, Japan's growing aggression created long-term tensions with major powers - particularly Russia, Britain, and later the United States. Rather than securing stability, Japan's aggressive policies therefore contributed to a cycle of confrontation that would eventually lead to wars in the 1930s and 1940s.

Peasant Unrest and Economic Hardship

The Meiji government's drastic economic reforms, such as the 1873 Land Tax Reform, stabilized state revenue but placed severe burdens on the rural population, leading to widespread debt and rural dissent. Moreover, the Meiji transition saw the abolition of feudal status and the elimination of hereditary stipends, stripping the samurai class of their traditional privileges and income. This led to a series of rebellions by former samurai against the government they had helped to create.

The Satsuma Rebellion: Online Simulation

Japan stands on the edge of transformation - and on the brink of chaos. In this high-stakes simulation, you become the Meiji Emperor, supreme guardian of a nation caught between centuries-old samurai honor and the unstoppable tide of modernization. The Satsuma Rebellion of 1877 erupts like a storm, led by warriors who refuse to let their world die. Provinces smolder, armies gather, and the empire looks to you for direction.

• Will you crush the rebellion with overwhelming force?
• Seek peace with men who feel betrayed by the nation they once served?
• Or forge a bold new path that neither side expects?

Every choice ripples across the empire. Every hesitation could cost you the nation itself. The destiny of modern Japan is in your hands!

ActiveHistory Podcast: The Meiji Restoration | Student worksheet | Teacher notes | Quiz

An in-depth podcast from ActiveHistory to draw the entire topic together. Ideal as a revision resource or an extension activity.

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